Chronic infections are composed of bacterial biofilms that can persist in and on our bodies for many years. But, biofilms are not constrained to chronic infections; they are present in several spaces in the healthy human body and basically everywhere in your surrounding.

Human Microbiome:

The human microbiome organized in the form of biofilms is known as Commensal Biofilms. The number of bacterial cells in the human body is ten times more than the total number of human cells. And if we talk about bacterial genes they constitute about 99% of total genes in the human body.

Commensal and natural biofilms are more diverse than chronic biofilms. These biofilms facilitate vital processes including the degradation of organic matter and facilitate plant growth.

ORAL BIOFILMS:

The oral cavity harbors hundreds of microbial species that are present either as planktonic cells or incorporated into biofilms. The majority of the oral microbes are commensal organisms. Those that are pathogenic microbes can result in oral infections, and at times can initiate systemic diseases.

There are two major types of oral biofilms:

1. Dental Biofilms/ Plaque
2. Carogenic Biofilms

Dental plaque is associated with caries and periodontal disease. But they also have some beneficial effects. Like:

1. Natural defense through the microbiome. The host microbiome act as a barrier to pathogens.
2. Protect teeth from erosion, which is de-mineralization of the teeth due to intake of fizzy acidic drinks.

Bacteria don't attach directly to the tooth cuz of the enamel surface is covered by a layer of salivary proteins called Pellicles. The first bacteria to adhere to is oral streptococci. Facultative Actinomyces acts as a receptor for other bacteria. Fusobacterium play a key role because it can aggregate with all bacteria in the biofilm. Biofilms develop from gram-positive to gram-negative rods and cocci.

Environmental factors affect biofilms. It is described by PHILLIP MARSH in a hypothesis called the ECOLOGICAL PLAQUE HYPOTHESIS, which states:

Change in ecological factors like access to growth factors, oxygen,pH and amount of gingival crevicular fluid determine the composition of the biofilm.

Carogenic biofilms:

Carogenic biofilms are described as microbial communities that create their own localized pH niche. These biofilms are dominated by 2 pathogens mainly:

1. Mutant Streptococci: It has a strong ability to adhere tooth due to sugar metabolism. It produces acid and can live at low pH.
2. Lactobacilli: It is found in already established lesions and is highly aciduric.

Caries:   Caries also known as cavities/demineralization is caused by biofilm production due to a drop in pH to 5.5. This drop in pH is due to acid production by fermentation. Caries allow bacteria to go to the pulp where nerves are located. Bacteria then induce inflammation and pain due to which pulp tissue becomes infected leading to necrosis. Due to necrosis nutrients convert from carbohydrates to proteins and the environment becomes more anaerobic.

An anaerobic environment favors the growth of proteolytic bacteria that spread from the root canal to the apical area of the tooth and jawbone. Biofilms in the pulp area are hard to identify.

Gingivitis:   Gum becomes swollen and red and may bleed. If not treated it can progress to periodontitis that lead to tooth loss.

Peridontitis:   Peridontitis is the loss of supporting tissue around teeth that result in the loosening of teeth.

Creator: Gunita Reine

Other Factors:

Other factors that can be a cause of oral biofilms are Dentures and Implants.

People who wear dentures usually have biofilms that contain Candida albicans, a pathogenic fungus that lives on the polymethyl acrylate used to make dentures (PMA). Denture wearers are at risk for denture stomatitis, an inflammation of the oral tissues that contribute to poor oral health, poor dental hygiene, and systemic diseases like diabetes.

Dental implants are man-made structures that replace lost teeth. They are constructed of plastic and titanium. Implant-related infections and inflammation can occur in patients who have them. The implant-related bacteria may gather and create a biofilm. The roughness of the implant's surface may alter bacterial adhesion to the implant and promote the development of biofilms. Peri-implantitis is an inflammatory condition that harms the oral tissue that supports the implant.

Conclusion: 

• Gingivitis is mediated by the amount of bacteria in biofilm while caries & peridontitis are mediated by changes in the environment that favor the growth of pathogenic species. 
• Caries develop due to a decrease in pH while periodontitis develops due to an increase in pH.

A coherent cluster of bacterial cells embedded in a matrix that are more tolerant to most microbial and host defenses than planktonic bacterial cells are called biofilms.

The best example to understand the structure of biofilms is a mushroom-like tree. At the top, there will be more oxygen, resulting in more growth, while on the inner surface, there will be less oxygen and slower growth. So, in conclusion, the outer part is more tolerable and the main support for biofilm compared to the inner part. If any Abx succeeds in entering inside the biofilm, there is no chance for an encounter.

Bacteria first multiply to form a matrix (have DNA, proteins, and LPS) and then form biofilms. Hosts respond to biofilms in three ways:

• non-inflammatory response
• immune response
• inflammatory response

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A gram-negative, flagellated, facultatively anaerobic bacillus called S. typhi has three main antigens: the flagellar antigen (H), the somatic antigen (O), and the vi antigen. The organism often transitions from one phase to another. H antigen can be present in either or both of the two phases. O antigens are found on the exterior of the membrane. Overlying the O antigen, the Vi antigen is a surface antigen. Salmonellae are distinguished from S.typhi by the Vi antigen.

S. typhi is a pathogen that is effective due to a variety of traits. This species possesses a Gram-negative organism-specific endotoxin in addition to the Vi antigen, which is expected to boost virulence.

History of AMR in S.typhi: 

Chloramphenicol was the most efficient and widely used treatment for typhoid fever when it was first discovered. Due to its widespread and indiscriminate use, chloramphenicol-resistant S. typhi isolates were discovered in England within two years. These strains were also resistant to ampicillin. co-trimoxazole was a successful alternative medication until co-trimoxazole-resistant strains were discovered in France. Despite the paucity of safety evidence, pediatricians worldwide were forced to employ ciprofloxacin in the late 1980s due to the epidemic of antibiotic resistance.

Fluoroquinolones consequently became the preferred medication for treating MDRTF all over the world. However, soon after, there were reports of S. typhi isolates that were resistant to fluoroquinolones. With the development of quinolone (nalidixic acid) resistance, third-generation cephalosporins were used for treatment, and reports of resistance to them also followed.

Mechanisms of AMR in S.typhi:

Following are some methods that S.typhi resists the effects of antibiotics.

• Antimicrobial agent inactivation
• Transport or efflux of the antibiotic
• Antimicrobial target site modification
• Decrease in the antibacterial agent's permeability

This is a typical reason why antimicrobial agents are destroyed or become activated. The bacterial pathogens prevent attacks by chemically altering medications to keep them inactive. The initial strains of antibiotic-resistant  S.typhi carried chloramphenicol acetyltransferase type I, which encodes an enzyme that inactivates chloramphenicol via acetylation.

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 Microorganisms in the ocean are active and growing. They play a crucial part in preserving the health of the oceans and the habitats of other marine animals. Some, though, can turn hazardous when they come into touch with people. They could bring about illnesses, infections, or even decease. Here are 17 of them, along with brief summaries for each.

Vibrio Bacteria:

Several bodies of water close to the coast have the Vibrio bacteria species. Between May and October, when the water temperature rises, they become more prevalent. These microorganisms have the potential to sicken people by infecting them. Consuming raw or undercooked oysters and other seafood is one of the most frequent ways to contract the disease.

Another way is through the skin which has wounds that are exposed to the water. Those that contract this bacteria recover in various ways. Some people might recover totally in a few days. Some people might require serious medical attention. But some people might require amputations, and some might even pass away.

Cyanobacteria:

Blue-green algae were formerly thought to be a kind of cyanobacteria. They are now categorized as a specific type of bacteria, though. Through photosynthesis, this species can transform nitrogen into substances like oxygen that are necessary for life. They do well in water that is calmer, like lakes or ponds close to the coast.

Cyanobacteria are especially helpful in biotechnology studies where they aid in analysis. However, cyanobacteria are also renowned for their toxic blooms (cyanotoxins). Drinking water sources that contain the toxin can induce ALS (motor neuron disease) or possibly death in susceptible individuals.

Legionella Bacteria:

The US experienced an outbreak of this particular bacteria in 1976, which resulted in 221 persons being extremely ill and 34 of them passing away. In lakes, rivers, streams, brackish water, or other bodies of water, Legionella bacteria thrive. The illness they spread is known as legionnaire's disease. It is a severe case of pneumonia with flu-like symptoms.

The illness can still be lethal even though it cannot be passed from person to person. Infected people may have a lower quality of life because they may continue to feel exhausted all the time or develop neurological symptoms months after an outbreak. This bacteria is thought to be a source of bioweapons in addition to being a disease-causing agent.

Also read: AMR in Pakistan

Aeromonas hydrophila Bacteria:

This kind of bacteria, which is most frequently found in warm waters, is harmful to both marine life and people. Given their capacity to infiltrate the bloodstream and infect the first organ they come across, they can even be regarded as hazardous. They discharge poisons that cause tissue harm.

These bacteria are also resistant to generic antibiotics. They do not, however, assault healthy people. Fish exposed to them become unwell, and humans may consume seafood, vegetables, or meats that contain this species. They could result in eczema or diarrhea in people.

Anabaena circinalis Bacteria:

This bacteria species have similar properties to cyanobacteria since they can also convert nitrogen into other necessary compounds. Anabena circinalis may develop algae blooms that may hurt plants and creatures living nearby the area.

In addition, this species is well known for using anesthetics to treat a variety of medical conditions. The bacteria are employed in the US to create chemical weapons since they also contain poisons. However, in the year 2010, these chemical weapons were destroyed.

Escherichia coli Bacteria:

E. coli is a relatively well-known name for these bacteria. According to studies, the majority of E. coli strains are not harmful. In fact, research demonstrates that these bacteria may release vitamin K2 when it locates a host. Bone and organ tissue formation are aided by vitamin K2.

Other strains, on the other hand, may have a high risk of contaminating food and producing food poisoning. In terms of food safety, E. coli is one of the typical bacteria that prompt product recalls. They can also spread illnesses like meningitis, Chron's disease, urinary infections, and others. Vomiting, fever, and diarrhea are symptoms.

Vibrio vulnificus Bacteria:

The majority of this bacterium can be found in warm, shallow saltwater close to the coast. The East and West Coasts of the US are where this bacteria is most prevalent. Similar to the germs that cause cholera is the Vibrio vulnificus bacteria.

Additionally, the bacteria are widespread in plankton, shellfish, clams, oysters, and clams. They can therefore seriously infect both people and other animals. The bacterium can result in wound infections and necrotizing fasciitis. They were one of the main causes of the survivors of the Asian tsunami's deteriorating health.

Shigella Bacteria:

Shigella bacteria are actually a group of bacteria. They are responsible for more than 500,000 diarrhea diseases around the world. When exposed to the bacteria, symptoms include fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea which could include blood.

Other side effects from the infections caused by shigella include seizures which are common in children and arthritis that can last for years. Infection to the blood streams is also possible although it can only happen to those who already have a weak immune system such as those who have cancer, malnutrition, or HIV.

Thiomargarita namibiensis Bacteria:

The Namibian Ocean contains a type of bacteria that scientists believe to be the largest bacteria to ever exist. Due to the sulfur that is present in their cells and produces a pearly sheen when exposed to light, they are also known as "sulfur pearls."

This specific bacteria aids in keeping the water from smelling like rotten eggs. The bacteria are currently being studied in order to better understand them, and scientists are hopeful that one day they may be able to employ them to clean up runoff in ocean areas.

Prochlorococcus Bacteria:

The pigmentation of Prochlorococcus bacteria differs from that of other bacteria in their family and is relatively modest. According to some reports, bacteria are the most prevalent photosynthetic creature on the planet. As the largest oceanic generators of oxygen, they have a significant impact.

They can absorb blue light that can penetrate the ocean up to 200 meters because of their coloration. This means that this bacteria can also endure in 200 meters of water. The bacteria contribute to the very beginning of the ocean food chain and account for 20% of the world's oxygen production.

Synechococcus Bacteria:

There are still a lot of aspects about this bacteria that are unclear. On the surface of water that receives a lot of light, this species of bacteria is frequently found. Both waters with a high nutrition level and waters with a low nutrient content can support them.

Synechococcus has a strong rate of growth, whereas its number is extremely low. Temperature, light, nutrients, genes, and virus mortality are all growth-promoting variables. In addition to surviving in ocean water, they are also prevalent in rivers when nitrate and phosphate levels are high.

Trichodesmium Bacteria:

The bacteria tricodesmium is also referred to as sea sawdust. They are widespread in nutrient-poor tropical and subtropical ocean waters. In the Red Sea, this particular bacteria flourishes.

They have the capacity to transform nitrogen into ammonium, a nutrient required for the survival of other species. This particular bacterial group can produce blooms on water and is visible to the naked eye. As sources of fresh nitrogen in environments deficient in nutrients, bacteria are essential to the marine food chain.

Pelagibacter Bacteria:

The largest population of these bacteria is currently known to exist worldwide, having originally been discovered in the waters of the Sargasso Sea. All around the planet, they can survive in both fresh and salt water. The bacteria aid in the recycling of dissolved organic carbon in the water.

They make up around 50% of the cells that reside in the temperate ocean water during the summer when the temperature is higher. They, therefore, play a significant part in the carbon cycle on Earth.

Shewanella haliotis Bacteria:

The bacteria were initially discovered in the remains of South Korean abalones, an edible sea snails. They have an impact on marine life and flourish in ocean water. As a result, they can spread to humans who eat raw seafood. The soft tissues are impacted by the infection they bring on. Those who are impacted may have a fever and require weeks of intensive hospital care and treatments.

Bacteroidetees bacteria:

The bacteria are thought to be beneficial and are found in ocean water. They can also be found on animal skin and guts in addition to water. However, in a marine environment, microorganisms aid in the breakdown and consumption of polymer compounds, including plastics. As a result, they contribute significantly to the breakdown of polymers found in ocean waters and are involved in the oceans' carbon cycle.

Vibrio anguillarum Bacteria:

All around the world, this specific kind of bacteria thrives in late summer brackish or salt water. They are the cause of vibriosis or red pest of eels sickness. They mostly affect salmon fish and can result in a number of strange body part enlargements. Although fish illness has been treated with antibiotics, the bacteria have developed a resistance to them. These days, a vaccine is utilized to prevent them.

Vibrio harveyi Bacteria:

These microorganisms are found in tropical marine waters. They are the cause of the illness's luminous vibriosis. Farmed prawns are particularly affected by this disease. In addition, the bacteria are to blame for the occurrence of milky oceans. The phenomena cause the ocean to create a blue glow that is visible at night. A 16.000 km2 area can be covered by the radiance.

Even though there are many microorganisms in the ocean that may cause immense danger to humans, they are still needed in order to keep ocean waters healthy

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Development of resistance in M .tuberculosis is a depiction of Darwin’s theory of evolution “survival of the fittest”. Due to selective pressure caused by antibiotics, M. tuberculosis comes up with survival mutants. Combination therapies have created the evolution of strains, eventually, causing resistance to all available drugs. Also, the exposure to bactericidal antibiotics is resulting in an induced mutation which ends up promoting mutant MDR phenotypes. Drugs like isoniazid and ethionamide are prodrugs that work cytotoxically after activation by redox enzymes in the bacterial cytoplasm. This process produces reactive oxygen and radicals that kill the bacterial cell, if they fail to kill, they eventually turn into bad promoting mutagenesis that ends up producing multidrug resistance.

There are some specialized mechanisms that help in detoxifying drug molecules that become able to penetrate the cytoplasm of bacteria. They can be enlisted as:

•       Target alteration
•       Target mimicry
•       Drug modification
•       Drug degradation
•       Drug efflux

INTRODUCTION:

           Malaria is a disease spread by mosquitos. It is one of the most common infectious illnesses and a major public health concern throughout the world, particularly in Africa and South Asia. It's a parasitic disease caused by plasmodium parasites that can be fatal. Humans were infected by the parasite after being bitten by infected mosquitoes. P. vivax is the most common parasite in the WHO Americas Region, accounting for 75 percent of malaria infections.

SYMPTOMS:

           Signs and symptoms of malaria may include:

•          Fever
•          Chills
•          General feeling of discomfort
•          Headache
•          Nausea and vomiting
•          Diarrhea
•          Abdominal pain
•          Muscle or joint pain
•          Fatigue
•          Rapid breathing
•          Rapid heart rate
•          Cough

Malaria sufferers may undergo "attacks" on a regular basis. Shivering and chills are common symptoms of an attack, which are followed by a high fever, sweating, and a return to normal temperature.

Symptoms of malaria usually appear a few weeks after being bitten by an infected mosquito. Some malaria parasites, on the other hand, can remain dormant in your body for up to a year.

WHAT ACTUALLY HAPPENS?

            The parasite is delivered into your circulation when an infected mosquito bites you. Once inside your body, parasites make their way to your liver, where they mature. The mature parasites enter the bloodstream and begin infecting red blood cells after several days. The parasites inside the red blood cells grow in 48 to 72 hours, forcing the infected cells to burst open. The parasites continue to infect red blood cells, causing symptoms that come and go in two- to three-day cycles.

MOSQUITO TRANSMISSION CYCLE:

OTHER TRANSMISSION MODES:

           People can contract malaria by coming into contact with infected blood because the parasites that cause malaria affect red blood cells.

• From the mother to the foetus
• Through the use of blood transfusions
• By sharing drug-injecting needles

TREATMENT:

          Malaria can be fatal, especially if you're infected with the parasite Plasmodium falciparum. In most cases, the condition is treated in a hospital setting. Medications will be prescribed by your doctor based on the type of parasite you have.

          Because parasite resistance to medications exists in some cases, the medication provided may not be enough to clear the illness. If this happens, your doctor may need to treat your problem with more than one medicine or change medications entirely.

           Furthermore, some malaria parasites, such as P. vivax and P. ovale, have liver stages in which the parasite can persist in your body for a long time and then reactivate at a later time, causing a relapse of the infection. If one of these types of malaria parasites is discovered, you'll be given a second treatment to prevent a future relapse..

COMPLICATIONS:

          Deaths from malaria are frequently caused by one or more significant complications, such as:

• Malaria of the brain. Swelling of the brain or brain damage may develop if parasite-filled blood cells block small blood arteries to the brain (cerebral malaria). Seizures and coma are possible side effects of cerebral malaria.
• Breathing difficulties. It can be difficult to breathe if you have a buildup of fluid in your lungs (pulmonary edema).
• Failure of one or more organs. Malaria can cause damage to the kidneys, liver, and spleen, as well as spleen rupture. Any of these disorders can put your life in jeopardy.
• Anemia. Malaria may cause a deficiency in red blood cells, resulting in an insufficient delivery of oxygen to your body's tissues (anemia)
• Low blood sugar levels. Low blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can be caused by severe forms of malaria, as well as quinine, a traditional malaria treatment. Low blood sugar levels might lead to unconsciousness or death.

PREVENTION:

             If you reside in or are visiting a malaria-prone location, take precautions to avoid mosquito bites. Mosquitoes are at their most active between the hours of dark and dawn. You should take the following precautions to avoid mosquito bites:

• Make sure your skin is protected.
• Use an insect repellent on your skin.
• Clothing should be treated with repellant.
• Sleep with a net over your head.

Malaria prevention medicines are often the same as those used to treat the disease. The drug you take is determined by where you're going, how long you'll be gone, and your personal health.

VACCINE:

             Researchers are developing malaria vaccines to prevent infection, but currently vaccines are experimental and not approved for general use.

INTRODUCTION:

           Prion illnesses are a group of uncommon neurodegenerative conditions that afflict humans and animals. Long incubation periods, spongiform alterations linked with neuronal death, and a failure to elicit an inflammatory response characterise them. Prions are thought to be the cause of TSEs (transmissible spongiform encephalopathies).

          The functions of these normal prion proteins are still being researched. The aberrant folding of prion proteins causes brain damage and the disease's typical signs and symptoms. Prion illnesses are usually deadly and advance quickly.

WHAT ARE PRIONS?

       Proteinaceous infectious particles are referred to as Prion. Prions are infectious organisms that cause a variety of neurological disorders in mammals, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Prions cause improper folding of normal proteins in the brain, specifically the misfolding of prion proteins (PrP). Prion affects both humans and animals, and infected meat products can sometimes spread the disease to humans..

Structure of Prions

HOW CAN YOU GET PRION DISEASES?

          You can get prion diseases in three ways:

·          ACQUIRED:

           Exposure to abnormal PrP from an outside source may occur through contaminated food or medical equipment.

·         INHERITED:

           Mutations present in the gene that codes for PrP leads to the production of misfolded PrP.

·         NATURALLY:

          Misfolded PrP may develop without any known cause.

Prion infection transmission

TPYES OF PRION DISEASES:

           Prion diseases can occur in both humans and animals. Both have disease characterized in different types. Some of them are listed below:

Human prion diseases are:

1.          Fatal Familial insomnia (FFI)
2.         Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS)
3.          Kuru
4.          Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD)
5.          Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD)

Animal prion diseases are:

1.          Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
2.          Chronic wasting disease (CWD)
3.          Scrapie
4.          Feline spongiform encephalopathy (FSE)
5.         Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME)
6.          Ungulate spongiform encephalopathy

SYMPTOMS:

        The following are some of the symptoms of prion diseases:

• Dementia that progresses quickly
• Walking difficulties and changes in gait
• Hallucinations
• Muscle tenseness
• Personality morphs (Confusion, Difficulty speaking, Depression, Disorientation)
• Fatigue

DIAGNOSIS:

       Prions have symptoms that are similar to those of other neurological illnesses, making them difficult to identify. The only way to diagnose it is by a post-mortem brain biopsy. A medical specialist, on the other hand, can diagnose it using symptoms, your medical history, and many tests. These tests include the following:

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a type of imaging that (MRI) A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan can produce a precise image of your brain. This can aid healthcare workers in visualising prion disease-related alterations in brain structure.
• CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) testing CSF can be collected and analysed for neurodegeneration-related indicators. A test for detecting signs of human prion disease was developed in 2015.
• Electroencephalography (EEG) is a type of brain imaging (EEG) This test records your brain's electrical activity

TREATMENT:

        There is presently no treatment for prion illnesses, however medication can help keep the disease at bay. Scientists are still trying to develop a treatment for prion illnesses. Anti-prion antibodies and "anti-prions (Trusted Source)" that prevent the reproduction of aberrant PrP are among the potential therapeutics being studied.

CAN PRIONS BE PREVENTED?

           Properly cleaning and sterilizing medical equipment may prevent the spread of the disease. If you have or may have CJD, do not donate organs or tissue, including corneal tissue. Newer regulations that govern the handling and feeding of cows may help prevent the spread of prion diseases. There’s currently no way to prevent inherited or sporadic forms of prion disease. If someone in your family has had an inherited prion disease, you may consider consulting with a genetic counselor to discuss your risk of developing the disease.

INTRODUCTION:

         The bacteria in the genus Vibrio are gram-negative, stiff, curved rods and comma-shaped, asporogenous, and non-capsulated. Vibrios can be found in marine ecosystems and surface waters all over the world. Vibrio cholera is the most important member of the genus.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT SPECIES:

          Three species off vibrio are medically important:

1.    Vibrio cholera
2.    Vibrio parahaemolyticus
3.   Vibrio vulnificus

VIRIO CHOLERA:

        Vibrio cholerae are gram-negative rods that are stiff, curved, and actively motile. Their development can be aided by the use of NaCl. They thrive at pH 6.4–9.6 (optimum 8.2) and temperatures ranging from 16 to 400 degrees Celsius (Optimum 370C).

        Cholera is caused by the bacteria Vibrio cholerae, which has been around for a long time. Symptoms can be minor, moderate, or severe. Large quantities of watery diarrhoea that lasts a few days is the most common symptom. Vomiting and muscular cramps are other possible side effects.

          Cholera, according to the World Health Organization, is a highly contagious disease that causes severe acute watery diarrhoea. After swallowing infected food or water, symptoms can appear anywhere from 12 hours to 5 days later. Cholera affects both children and adults, and if left untreated, illness can kill within hours. Although the bacteria are present in their faeces, most people infected with V. cholera exhibit no symptoms.

           A medical practitioner can treat it, but it requires a lab test or imaging. The severity of the diarrhoea determines the treatment. Antibiotics and self-care methods can usually be used to treat most cases.

VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS:

         Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a Gram-negative motile bacterium found worldwide in marine habitats. It is a significant food-borne pathogen that causes life-threatening infections in humans when raw or undercooked seafood is consumed.

           Symptoms of Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection usually occur within 24 hours after ingesting the bacteria. Symptoms may include:

·         Watery diarrhea

·         Abdominal cramps

·         Nausea

·         Vomiting

·         Fever

·         Headache

·         Bloody diarrhea

          Antibiotic treatment is normally not required for V. parahaemolyticus gastro, however antibiotic therapy may be required in situations of protracted diarrhoea. The following are some general guidelines for treating gastro:

• Make sure you drink plenty of water. For children and adults with mild to moderate dehydration, an oral rehydration solution is strongly suggested.
• Unless expressly directed by a doctor, do not administer drugs to prevent vomiting or diarrhoea (particularly in youngsters).
• Give hungry youngsters their typical foods, but steer clear of sugary or fatty items.

VIBRIO VULNIFICUS:

          Vibrio vulnificus is a pathogenic bacteria of the genus Vibrio that is gram-negative, motile, and curved rod-shaped (bacillus). It can be found in aquatic habitats. In the summer, when the water warms, Vibrio vulnificus is found in increasing numbers. When a person consumes raw or uncooked shellfish, bacteria enters the digestive tract and quickly multiplies. In immunocompetent people, it can infect wounds and cause local wound infections.

The following are the most prevalent vibrio vulnificus symptoms:

• Cellulitis is a skin infection that affects the dermal and subcutaneous layers.
• Chills and weakness are symptoms of a fever.
• Sepsis.
• Breathing problems or irregular heartbeats.
• Reduced urination is one of the signs of organ failure.
• Platelet count has dropped.
• Pain in the abdomen, nausea, and diarrhoea.
• Lymphangia (swelling of the lymph nodes).

PREVENTION AND CONTROL:

         To prevent Vibrio illness, don’t eat raw oysters or other shellfish, and stay out of brackish or salt water if you have a wound. 

    Haemophilus is a gram-negative rod that is tiny and non-motile. Inhaled droplets or direct touch with contaminated secretions can spread the disease. The flora of the human respiratory system and mouth cavity in its natural state. They are gram-negative aerobic bacteria with a polysaccharide capsule. Polysaccharide capsules come in six different serotypes (a-f). Type b bacteria are responsible for 95% of invasive illnesses (Hib).

     They are non-motile, non-sporing, gramme negative rod or coccobacillus, and Pleomorphic in size (1-2 X 0.3 – 0.5 microns) (old culture). Infected sputum has clusters of Coccobacillary forms, while infected CSF has long bacillary and filamentous forms (Meningitis).

     Carbol fuchsin (5-15 minutes) or Loeffler's methylene blue can be used to stain them. They have a lot of strain that has been capsulated. India ink wet films and Quelling reaction discolour the capsule. CSF, blood, a throat swab, sputum, and pus aspirates from the joints of the Middle Ear Sinuses can all be used to obtain samples. On Blood agar and Chocolate agar, it can be cultivated. Carbon dioxide levels of 5–10% are required. At 370 degrees Celsius, a stripe of Staphylococcus should be streaked across the plate.

    As Satellitisim, opaque colonies appear. On Leviathan media, Iridescence is demonstrated. After 24 hours on Chocolate agar, flat, grayish-brown colonies with a diameter of 1-2 mm appeared. Staphylococci colonies on sheep The release of NAD by blood agar results in the satellite growth phenomena.

WHAT IS SATELLITE GROWTH?

      When Staph aureus is  streaked across plate  of Blood agar with a  species containing H  Influenza the colonies  which are large  develop along the  streak of  Staphylococcus and  small further away giving a satellite like pattern.

WHAT IS HEAMOPHILUS INFECTION?

       Hib is a bacterial infection that in young children can cause a potentially fatal brain infection. Hib can cause meningitis (inflammation of the brain and spinal column's coverings), bloodstream infections, pneumonia, arthritis, and infections in other regions of the body. Haemophilus influenzae is a bacteria that can be found in both children and adults' noses and throats. Some people carry the bacteria but do not become ill as a result of it.

CAUSES:

       Through respiratory droplets, people transfer H. influenzae, including Hib, to others. When someone with the germs in their nose or throat coughs or sneezes, this happens. Even if they aren't sick, people with the bacteria in their noses and throats can spread it.

IS IT SAME AS FLU?

       Hib does not cause influenza, despite its name (the flu). The flu is caused by a virus, not bacteria.

 TREATMENT:

      The pillars of treatment for Haemophilus influenza infections are antibiotics and supportive care. Until antibiotic sensitivities are known, invasive and severe H influenzae type b (Hib) infections are best treated with an intravenous third-generation cephalosporin.

       The first dose of Hib vaccine is normally given to infants at the age of two months, and the series is usually completed at the age of 12–15 months. Children aged 12 months to 5 years who have not been fully vaccinated against Hib may require one or more doses of the vaccine.

IS HAEMOPHILUS STD?

       Chancroid is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) caused by Haemophilus ducreyi infection. It is characterised by painful necrotizing vaginal ulcers that may be accompanied by lymphadenopathy in the inguinal region. It's a condition that's very contagious but treatable.